Introduction

Police officers all over the world are exposed to the potential for violence every work day, yet an even more dangerous enemy lurks inside their own ranks: suicide. Police suicide can devastate the morale of entire agencies and leave other officers with intense feelings of guilt, remorse, and disillusionment.

Under conditions of stress, danger, and availability of firearms, one might expect an increased risk of police suicide. Research statistics demonstrate that officers kill themselves more than they are killed by others. Major epidemiological studies have shown that the risk of police suicide is over three times that of the general population, and risk has appeared to increase over the past decade. In addition, there is suspicion that some police suicides are intentionally misclassified as accidents or undetermined deaths in order to protect suicide victims and survivors.

Suicide Risk Assessment

There are some general indicators which have been found to associated with an increased risk of suicide:

1. Age, race and sex – male officers 50 years and older are at highest risk, while females of any age at lowest risk. Caucasion males have the highest suicide rate of all demographic groups.

2. Psychiatric symptoms - persons with clinical depression are at highest risk for suicide.
Depression is likely the most common warning sign of suicide, followed by those exhibiting symptoms of schizophrenia such as disorganization confusion, chaos, and hallucinations

3. Stress - recent stress including daily hassles, life events, and traumatic events. Examples are a recent job loss, significant other or illness. The experience of a traumatic incident may also precipitate suicide.

4. Prior suicidal thoughts/attempts - A person’s potential for suicide is higher if they have had previous suicide attempts, have been considering suicide as an option, if they have specific plan and means readily available, and if a truly lethal means is contemplated (e.g., a police officer who always has a gun readily available). Each attempt increases the liklehood of success.

5. Available resources - A person who is isolated or has no means of social support has a greater risk for suicide, as is someone whose friends and family are openly hostile and rejecting.

Although stress , traumatic incidents, or access to firearms may be precipitants to police suicide, these factors cannot be significantly changed. Researchers suggest that suicide prevention efforts focus on identifying factors that can be changed, such as knowledge and identification of risk factors and attitudes towards seeking help with personal problems.

Preventing Police Suicide

The following is a proposal for a suicide prevention model adaptable to most police organizations:

Psychological Assessment

Although recruit screening in many police departments involves psychological testing, personality factors and family history (family violence, substance abuse) should also be noted for tracking high-risk officers in the future. In-service officers being selected for special duty (SWAT teams, undercover, etc.), should undertake additional psychological assessment to determine their suitability for such assignments.

Tracking High Risk Officers

Police departments should track high-risk officers (e.g., officers with marital difficulties, substance abuse, work problems, and other life problems) so that timely support can be provided. A behavior profile should be reviewed every 6 months to determine which officers are at risk for suicide. There should be documentation of changes in behavior and problems of officers. Consultation with mental health professionals is essential when a police officer exhibits inappropriate behavior or behavioral change that suggests potential suicide.

Access to Firearms

Certainly, the risk of suicide increases because police officers have ready access to firearms. The practice of some departments requiring police to carry firearms off-duty may be a target for police organizational policy change, as such immediate access can facilitate impulsive suicide tendencies in officers. An informal survey of four large size urban police departments by the present author indicated that none of them kept statistical records of off-duty use of firearms by police officers.

Family Involvement

Seminars should be given for police recruits and their families so they understand the psychological effects of police work. Marital problems can be a most significant stress-producing factor in the suicidal police officer. The New York City study, for example, found that 58% of police suicides in New York City were the result of relationship problems with family or significant others. Counseling services should be made available to families and officers.

Training

Training which can help officers recognize and avoid psychological factors leading to suicide is important. Training should begin at the police academy level and include recognition of psychological depression, communication skills, conflict resolution, and intimate relationship maintenance. Supervisors can be an important source of support for line officers and should be trained to recognize the warning signs of suicide and suggest confidential referrals.

Stress Awareness

Stress awareness is a psychologically sound method to help individuals cope. A stress education program should include identification of stress, the value and techniques of physical exercise, benefits of proper nutrition, interpersonal communication methods, and coping styles.

Stress education on the family level should include identification of the police function, problems commonly encountered in police marriages, methods for effective communication, and the family as a source of support.

Executive

Executive level training in suicide awareness is also important. Executives can play a very important role in supportive functions, including organizational change and assistance with line officer problems. "Support from the top" can give officers an impression that the organization cares. Also, executives are not immune to the effects of police, work, they too have the potential for suicide.

Intervention

Not only can an effective intervention effort save officers' lives, but it can also safeguard agencies from the devastating effects of suicide. To facilitate officers in taking the first difficult step to intervention, the police organization should develop and increase accessibility to confidential psychological services. Essentially, officers need a safe place to go for help, out of administrative view.

Retirement Counseling

Suicide rates are high among retired officers. Retirement is not an easy transition for most people, and even more difficult for police officers. Many officers do not have skills for other types of employment and are unprepared for retirement. Informational seminars and counseling should be made available to officers as early as five years prior to retirement. Spouses and other family members should be included in such seminars.

Conclusion

As is true with addressing any problem, the first step is to recognize that the problem exists. With regard to police suicide, police departments must take that important first step. Even one police suicide is too many, and agencies must be proactive in their attempt to prevent such tragedies.


References:
Langston, E. (1995, March). Police Suicide. Presentation at the American Criminal Justice Society annual Conference, Boston, MA.

Ivanoff, A. & Tighe, W. (1994). Suicide and the police officer: Getting help before it is too late. Training Protocol, New York City Police Department.

Violanti, J.M. (1996). Police Suicide: Epidemic in Blue. Charles C. Thomas Publishing, Springfield, Illinois.